- Rust (ferric oxide; Fe2O3) is formed by the oxidation of iron
- Iron (Fe) in metal loses electrons (2e-) within the pipe wall and to oxygen (O2) dissolved in passing water (H2O)
- The resulting ferrous (Fe2+) ion loses an additional electron to hydroxide (OH-)
- Two resulting ferric (Fe3+) ions form bonds with three oxygens resulting in ferric oxide (rust) on the surface of metal
- Scale is deposition of metal ions such as manganese (Mn2+), iron (Fe2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+) and non-metals, such as nitrogen sodium (Na) in water
- High concentrations of ions, changes in pH, and variations of water temperature can cause dissolved metals and non-metals to combine and precipitate (salt out) onto the interior pipe surface
- Static electricity is generated by friction between flowing water and a special carbon electrode – electrons are transferred to water
- Water is thus ionized
- Electron losses by iron within pipe wall are thus stabilized – Fe not oxidized to Fe2+
- Full rust protection within 4 weeks after installation. Existing rust is also reduced with use over time.